Teaching Speaking

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE, YOUTH AND SPORT OF UKRAINE IVAN FRANKO NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LVIV ENGLISH DEPARTMENT Speaking and Writing. Common and Distinctive features in Teaching PRESENTED BY Suzan Al-Jholani a fifth year student of the English Department SUPERVISED BY Sanotska L. G. associate professor of the English Department LVIV 2012 Contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 I. Common features in teaching speaking and writing†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. II. Distinctive features in teaching speaking and writing†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Communication between humans is an extremely complex and ever-changing phenomenon. But there are certain generalizations that can be made about the majority of communicative events and these will have a particular relevance for the learning and teaching of languages. There are countless reasons for communication between individuals: they want to say something, they have some communicative purpose, they want to get some information, etc.It is important to realize that these generalizations do not only apply to spoken word: they characterize written communication as well. Speaking and writing are called productive skills because they involve language production, as opposed to lis tening and reading, which are receptive skills [1, 46-47]. Common features in teaching speaking and writing The productive skills of writing and speaking have more distinctive than common features. However, there are number of language production processes which have to be gone through whichever medium we are working in.In order for communication to be successful we have to structure our discourse in such a way that it will be understood by our listeners and readers. In speech this often involves following of conversational patterns and the use of lexical phrases. For the part of writing it has to be both coherent and cohesive. Coherent writing makes sense because you can follow the sequence of ideas and points. Cohesion is more technical matter since it is here that we concentrate on the various linguistic ways of connecting ideas across phrases and sentences [2, 246].Both teaching writing and speaking involves following the rules of communication. There are three areas of rules th at should be considered: * Sociocultural rules: speakers from similar social backgrounds know how to speak to each other in terms of how formal to be, what kind of language they can use, how loud to speak, or how close to stand to each other. * Turn-taking: in any conversation decisions have to be taken about when each person should speak. * Rules for writing: writing has rules too, which need to be recognized and either be followed or purposively flouted.We have to take into the account the genre and the style of writing [2, 246]. One of the reasons that people can operate within sociocultural rules is because they know about different styles, and recognize different written and spoken genres. This depends on the aim of communication, on the recipient and setting. In order to speak and write at different levels of intimacy students need practice in different genres and different styles so that their level increases they can vary the grammar, functions ,and lexis that they can use . It is vital, therefore, that if the coursebook does not offer a satisfactory range of such genre-based activities teachers should supply it themselves [2,247]. Teachers have to teach how to interact with the audience. Part of our speaking proficiency depends upon our ability to speak differentially, depending upon our audience, and upon the way we absorb their reaction and respond to it in some way or other. Part of our writing ability depends upon our ability to change our style and structure to suit the person or people we are writing for [2, 248].When speakers or writers of their own or of a foreign language do not know a word or just cannot remember it, they may employ some or all of the following strategies to resolve the difficulty they are encountering: * Improvising: speakers sometimes try any word or phrase that they can come up with in the hope that it is about right. * Discarding: when speakers simply cannot find words for what they want to say, they may discard the thoug ht that they cannot put into words. Foreignising: when operating in a foreign language, speakers (and writers) sometimes choose a word in a language they know well (such as their first language) and ‘foreignise' it in the hope that it will be equivalent to the meaning they wish to express in the foreign language. * Paraphrasing: speakers sometimes paraphrase. Such lexical substitution or circumlocution gets many speakers out of trouble, though it can make communication longer and more convoluted [2, 249].To prevent problems that students may encounter while improving speaking and writing skills teachers have to follow certain principles. In the first place, they need to match the tasks they ask students to perform with their language level. This means ensuring that they have the minimum language they would need to perform such a task. Secondly, teachers need to ensure that there is a purpose to the task and that students are aware of this. They should also remember that studen ts who are not used to speaking or writing spontaneously need to be helped to cultivate such habits.Teachers should not expect instant fluency and creativity; instead they should build up students' confidence step by step giving them restricted tasks first before prompting them to be more and more spontaneous later. Finally, teachers need to assess the problems caused by the language they need, and the difficulties which the topic or the genre might create [2,251-253]. To make students inspired teacher has to choose interesting topic and create interest in it. It is also important to vary the topics they offer them so that they cater for the variety of interests within the class.It is also vitally important to vary the genres teachers ask their students to work with if we want them to gain confidence in writing and speaking in different situations. Distinctive features in speaking and writing teaching One of the reasons that teaching writing is so different from teaching speech is t hat two types of discourse differ in their basic characteristics. Differences between them imply different types of exercises which focus on different aspects of language and demand different levels of correctness [1,52].Writing requires a greater degree of accuracy, and is in many ways the more difficult skill to learn. For a start, the written form is visible and mistakes are seen. With speaking, students often make ‘slips of the tongue’-they have said something wrong, but if they could hear a recording of what they said, they could correct the mistake themselves. Written task on the one hand often require accuracy and formal language. Because they recognize this, many students feel under pressure when writing.However, with writing students can proof-read and self-correct. They can go more slowly and carefully than when they are speaking. It is an important skill teachers must teach students-read what they have written [4,182]. Punctuation is another factor absent fro m speaking. Increasingly these days, one might question the importance of correct punctuation, but whereas one can accept that the correct use of colons or semi-colons is not really so important, surely the correct use of capitalization and question marks, for example, does matter [4, 182].Spelling may also cause problems, something which mother-tongue speakers have difficulty with. Again, people differ in their views of the importance of correct spelling, but the fact remains that, teachers have to recognize what is ‘correct' writing, and what is ‘incorrect'. If they cannot recognize a mistake, then they cannot correct it [4, 182]. With Writing, students do not have to concern themselves with aspects of pronunciation, or being fluent. Those students who are much more interested in accuracy than fluency, arc often very good when writing.It is very common to find students who have had accuracy-based language learning, writing extremely well and accurately, but that is dif ficult for them to express themselves orally [1, 53]. Writing tends to be more economical in its use of the language. There are no ‘hesitators' (‘mmm', ‘er', ‘well', etc. ) that litter our conversation. Written language is direct and efficient. The writer suffers from the disadvantage of not getting immediate feedback from the reader – and sometimes getting no feedback at all.In writing students can not use intonation or stress, and facial expression, gesture and body movement. These disadvantages have to be compensated for the greater clarity and by the use of grammatical and stylistic techniques for focusing attention on main points, etc. Most importantly there is greater need for logical organization in piece of writing than there is in a conversation, for the reader has to understand what has been written without asking for clarification or relying on the writer’s tone of voice or expression [1,53].When teaching writing, therefore, there are special considerations to be taken into account which include the organizing of sentences into paragraphs, how paragraphs are joined together, and the general organization of ideas into a coherent piece of discourse [1,54]. Creative writing practice is a critical part of learning a written language. Writing can be encouraged through poetry, stories, plays and dialogues, but it important that students be engaged and interested in the writing projects.Pen pal letters between students can help to capture the interests of a class as they learn written communication with their peers utilizing the new language. The objective of such a project would be for students to learn how to use appropriate language and produce suitable letters that can be sent as a correspondence, but can also be used as effective evaluation and grading tools. Speaking a language involves using the  components correctly – making the right sounds, choosing the  right words and getting constructions gramma tically correct.Pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary tasks  will focus on the need  for practice in language accuracy. At the same time, we also need to  get a clear message across and this  involves choosing appropriate content or ideas to suit a situation, e. g. deciding what is polite or what might appear rude, how to interrupt or how to participate in a conversation. All this involves practice in language fluency. Speaking requires thinking on the spot, practice and exposure to the language over time. Speakers have a great range of expressive possibilities at their command.Apart from the actual words they use they can vary their intonation and stress which helps them to show which part of what they are saying is most important. By varying pitch and intonation their voice can clearly convey their attitude to what they are saying. They can indicate interest or lack of it. At any point in speech event speakers can rephrase what they are saying; they can speed up or slow do wn. This will often be done in response to the feedback they are getting from their listeners who will show through variety of gestures , expressions and interruptions that they do not understand.And in a face to face interaction the speaker can use a whole range of facial expressions, gestures and general body to help to convey the message. Developing speaking skills in the classroom can include a wide variety of activities. Controlled lessons that include drilling and pre-planned, question and answer prompts can help students develop skills under the teacher’s watchful eye. Guided activities such as dialogues and role-play scenarios, while based on accuracy, do allow for more creativity and individual exploration with the language.Exact language may not be as controlled in such activities and students have a chance to practice their language with a bit more freedom. Students improve their formal speech when teachers provide insights on how to organize their ideas for presen tation. Students can give better speeches when they can organize their presentation in a variety of different ways, including sequentially, chronologically and thematically. They need practice in organizing their speech around problems and solutions, causes and results, and similarities and differences.After deciding about the best means of organization, they can practice speeches with another student or with the whole class. Teachers can also help students adapt their speeches and informal talks so as to correspond to the intended audience, the information to be communicated, and the circumstances of the occasion at which they will speak. The teachers can illustrate how well-known speakers have adapted their presentations in ways to suit these different circumstances Students may enjoy speaking about their personal experiences.When given this opportunity, they can benefit from instruction in the elements of good story-telling. Both teachers and students can provide suggestions for students’ speeches. In constructively criticizing others, learners can learn to apply criteria for good speech and employ tactful social skills. In doing so, they can increase and improve their own speaking skills. Students can also learn speaking and social skills by suggesting possible improvements to one another’s practice speeches. Positive experiences in speaking can lead to greater skills and confidence in speaking in front of larger groups.These activities help students to become familiar and comfortable with the new language. Creative communication involves more fluency-based activities that can really enable students to utilize their creative thinking and language skills. Activities of this type might include discussions, simulations and communication games, but they may also include real- life experiences such as a field trip to a restaurant or a guest visitor in the classroom, providing opportunities for students to use the new language in a less controlled setting.Careful planning and preparation are a necessity for this kind of learning experience, and such lessons must be followed-up with some form of assessment or evaluation tool to determine the effectiveness of the experience, but the benefits to the student can be significant. Not only are students making connections between the language they are learning in the classroom and the language used in the real world, they are practicing their skills and developing their own methods for utilizing and retaining the new language.In comparison to speaking skills, the development of writing skills involves many of the same difficulties and some additional challenges, including differences in grammar and vocabulary use, spelling, structure, punctuation and others. A variety of games in the classroom and as pair, small-group or homework activities, can be utilized to provide controlled practice and experience with writing. Crosswords, word finds, gap fills and story boards are but a few of the games and activities that can be adapted for teaching writing skills including vocabulary, spelling, grammar and pronunciation.Developing useful and effective language skills requires practice and experience, from controlled lessons to authentic, real-life experiences. The basic building blocks of a language are critical to the learning process but practical experience, creative exploration, and opportunities to practice in less controlled activities can help to bind the various parts of language acquisition into a solid understanding of the new language and how it can be used. Whether speaking or writing, students need to be able to activate the knowledge they have learned in the classroom in order to communicate successfully in their new language.Conclusions Being productive skills, speaking and writing involve language production. They have both common and distinctive features in teaching; although distinctive have majority in number. For communication to be successful (eithe r oral or written one) students have to know how to structure the discourse, to be aware of rules of communication, different styles and genres, have knowledge about how to interact with audience. In productive skills teaching strategies to resolve the difficulties that students can encounter are the same.To prevent problems that students may encounter while improving speaking and writing skills we teachers have to follow certain principles: match the tasks with students’ language level, built student confidence step by step, choose interesting topic and create interest in it. Taking into account the fact that speaking skills require fluency and frequency, and writing skills demand accuracy – different teaching strategies and activities have to be used. References 1. Harmer, J. The practice of English language teaching. – London and New Jork: Longman, 1991. – 296 p. 2. Harmer, J.The practice of English language teaching. Third Eddition. -Londin: Longman,2 001. – 371 p. 3. Lavery, C. Language Assistant. http://www. scribd. com/doc/14112081/Whole-Manual 4. Riddell, D. Teach English as a foreign language. -London: Hodder Edducation , 2010. -366 p. 5. Sariel, O. Teaching productive skills – fine tuning speaking and writing skills. http://ru. scribd. com/doc/58656496/Teaching-Productive-Skills 6. Wallace T. , Stariba W. , Walberg H. Teaching, speaking, listening and writing. http://www. ibe. unesco. org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/EducationalPracticesSeriesPdf/PRATICE_14. pdf

Is Money the Sole Motivator for the Workforce Essay

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Research Paper on Drinking & Driving Essay

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Business strategy - Assignment Example One of the reasons for this ambiguity can be the lack of a productive identification process (Whiddett and Hollyforde, 1999). Core competencies are often recognized in forms of intangible and tangible assets. Equivalent attention should be paid to both intangible and tangible competencies in order to gain sustainable competitive advantage (Bergenhenegouwen, Horn and Mooijman, 1996). This is because the value added and intangible contributions are much influential and critical (Hafeez and Abdelmeguid, 2003). It has also been pointed out that competitive advantage decreases as a result of the tangible assets. Thus, it can be said that the overall competency of an organization cannot be completed unless the personal competencies are also taken into consideration (Whitehill, 1997). This paper will analyze the core competencies in details. The various benefits and drawbacks of the concept will be explained. The paper will also incorporate expert opinions and critics from various researche rs and academics regarding concepts of core competencies as well as paradoxes. The next part of the paper will try to examine any relationship between concepts of core competency and Icarus paradox. Core competency Model Core competencies can be described as deep proficiencies enabling an organization to deliver quick and unique value to its customers. It symbolizes a firm’s collective experience and learning. It also helps in understanding the coordination of diverse manufacturing and production skills as well as integration of multiple technologies. This type of competency creates sustainable and long term competitive advantage for an organization and helps it in branching out into a broader category of related markets (Collis, 1991). The best advantage of having core competency is that it is very difficult for competitors to procure or copy. Understanding and evaluation of core competencies permit an organization to invest in various strengths which differentiates them and implement strategies for unifying the entire organization (Agha, Alrubaiee and Jamhour, 2012). The concept of core competency was first introduced in the framework of Prahalad and Hamel. They defined core competency as â€Å"An organisation’s major value-creating skills, capabilities, and resources that determine its competitive weapons.† (Hamel and Prahalad, 1990). According to this framework, competition cannot be considered as a market power in the long run. This can be derived from the fact that even though organizations have survived in tough global competition, they are all converging towards similar as well as formidable standards for quality, product cost and timeliness. Thus, managers now need to investigate their internal competencies as well as resources and capabilities for securing sustainable and long-term survival (Eden and Ackermann, 2000). According to the model, core competency can be recognized by application of three tests. These are: Firstly, with the help of a core competency, potential access to a wide market area can be gained. Secondly, core competencies significantly contribute in the creation of perceived consumer benefits of the end service or product. Thirdly, it is hard for competitors to copy or imitate as it involves complex harmonization of production skills and individual technologies. In other words, the understanding of the significance of the competence for competitive differentiation, whether the

Ethical Dilemma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethical Dilemma - Essay Example In short we can say that there is no satisfactory outcome of an ethical dilemma and despite this, decisions have to be made. The outcome of the ethical dilemma affects both the subject and object leaving both unhappy at the end of the day. How I became Aware of the Term: I came to know about the ethical dilemmas and its severity when a lady in my neighborhood faced this situation. Let us call the lady ABC. She was pregnant and belonged to Jehovah Witnesses Sect of religion. Unfortunately she met an accident in which she lost her blood. When she was brought to the hospital her breathing rate was 28/m and she was complaining about weakness in the head. After careful evaluation and several different tests including ultrasonography the doctors suggested blood transfusion to save her and the baby. The situation became worst when she refused to accept blood as it was against her religion. Doctors suggested other ways of blood gain like blood products but she refused both the methods on rel igious grounds. In her worst situation she delivered a baby. But after two hours her condition became even worst and she died of cardiac arrest. The doctors were bound to follow the religious ethics as they could not do anything against anyone’s religion. This is a complete and true example of ethical dilemma. The Dilemma: â€Å"The major ethical dilemma was that by honoring the patient's autonomy and religious beliefs, the physicians and interdisciplinary team were faced with compromising their moral duty to administer professional care in accordance with established standards.†Ã‚  (Chua & Tham, 2006). ANA Code of Ethics and the Facility at the Hospital: While treating her, the Doctors were bound to follow a particular principle of ANA code of Ethics; that is to respect and honor the religious beliefs of the patients. Preserving her religious values, the doctors did not infuse blood and at the end she died. The provision of ANA code of Ethics further highlight that th e ‘nurse’s primary commitment is to the patient’ and hence, all other factors become meaningless once the patient gives consent to the treatment, in our case it could be an acceptance of blood diffusion. Both the parties were affected by following the ANA code of ethics, the Doctor and the patient with her family. The ethical dilemma relating to the religious beliefs of the patients are complex in nature. The religious and social beliefs, if not handled properly, may give rise to other ethical threats like discriminatory practices, bias on religious basis and so on. Any attempt to force or taking uninformed health saving practice poses a greater risk to the nursing profession leading to a deterioration of reputation of nurses. Hence, there is a strong relationship between a religious factor and the abidance of ANA code of ethics in making decisions when the patient’s life is at stake. Under such circumstances, a nurse must use his/her convincing abilities through proper communication with the patients and their families. The decision, however, lies with the caretakers and the patients regarding practices that are against their will, religion or social norms. The nurse has a responsibility of confidentiality towards the patient as per ANA code of ethics. In order to convince the patient on blood

Soft system Methodology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Soft system Methodology - Essay Example Compare to hard problems soft problem are difficult to define. Feasibility study is an important phase in the software development process. It enables the developer to have an assessment of the product being developed. It refers to the feasibility study of the product in terms of outcomes of the product, operational use and technical support required for implementing it. Economic Feasibility: It refers to the benefits or outcomes. We are deriving from the product as compared to the total cost we are spending for developing the product. If the benefits are more or less the same as the older system, then it is not feasible to develop the product. In the present system, the development of the new product greatly enhance the accuracy of the system and cuts short the delay in the processing of Birth and Death application. The errors can be greatly reduced and at the same time providing great level of security. Hence, we do not need any additional equipment except memory of required capacity. Operational Feasibility: It refers to the feasibility of the product to be operational. Some products may work very well at design and implementation but may fall in the real time environment. It includes the study of additional human resources required and their technical expertise. Technical Feasibility: It refers to whether the software that is... Technical Feasibility: It refers to whether the software that is available in the market fully supports the present application. It studies the pros and cons of using particular software for the development and it's feasibility. It also studies the additional training need to be given to the people to make the application work. Implementation Plan The main plan for the system developed is to upgrading and existing system to proposed system. There are mainly 4 methods of upgrading the existing system to the proposed Parallel Run System Direct Cut-Over Method Pilot System Phase-in Method Parallel Run System: It is most secure method of converting from an existing to anew system. In this approach, both the systems are run in parallel for a specific period of time. During the period of if any serious problems were identified while using the new system, the new system is dropped and the older system is taken at the start point again. Direct Cut-Over Method: In this approach, the existing system is converted to the new system abruptly, some times over a weekend or even overnight. The old system is used until a planed conversion day. There exist no parallel activities. Pilot Method: In this approach, a working version of the system is implemented in one art of the organization such as a single work area or department. When the system is deemed complete it is installed through out the organization either all at once (direct cut-over) or gradually (phase-in). Phase-in Method: In this method, a part of the system is first implemented and over time, other remaining parts are implemented. SYSTEM ANALYSIS Analysis is the detailed study of the various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside of the system. A key question is:

Critical Response Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critical Response - Research Paper Example The two stories intricately crisscross each other and in a way assume a form and life of their own as they gradually unravel. Dunye’s film primarily comes out as a complex yet somewhat enticing insight into the American history, delving on the relevance of cultural icons and issues pertaining to cultural representation. However, the film sometimes confuses the audience going by the fact that it has a lot going on in it at the same time, thereby making the plot a little complicated with haphazardly placed setting of the events, their order and duration, and the exact relationship between them. Still, Dunye has been able to manipulate the link between the plot and the story to facilitate a sense of drama. To a great extent the story relies on stereotypical contrasts and comparisons like the differences between regular, curious and evolving character of the young black lesbian Cheryl and Tamara, her particularly stereotypical, hardliner and close minded friend. The one big weakne ss in the film is that it predominantly intends to intrigue through the ingenuity of the exploitation of documentary techniques. May be it is owing to this that some audience may find themselves disappointed by the disparity and lack of correlation between the form and the content. What the forms in the movie Watermelon Woman seem to offer, the content sadly falls short of it. One special thing about the larger theme of the movie is that it has definitely succeeded in emphasizing the emotional relevance and value of cinema. However, the coy romance engaged in by Cheryl, and the wacky shots that she is continually subjected to, to a large extent dilute the overall impact of the movie, making it conveniently ingratiating for an audience with regular expectations, without being able to score the incumbent and associated political comments. Though, the prime focus of the director seems to be to resuscitate a part of the African American history that conveniently got sidelined in the flo w of time, which is the Black sexual history, the film badly falls short of achieving this objective in a forceful way. However, Dunye has managed to succeed in securing varied salient objectives that attend the feature films associated with the like subjects and themes. In her own peculiar way Dunye has been able to write a history that earlier never existed. In that context, the film Watermelon Women is securely grounded in the historiographical facts and realities of the Black people and especially the black women of the last century. For instance, Cheryl’s quest for the ‘Watermelon Woman’, engages her in interesting and thought provoking interviews with many people who happened to be the fundamental part and parcel of the Black Club culture during the interwar days. While delving on the film in a serious and analytical manner, one simply cannot help identifying the personal stake that the director has in the movie. The Watermelon Woman throughout hovers aroun d an essential black lesbian identity. However, it does so by stimulating the viewers to correlate and identify the connections between the stories of a black American actress from the bygone era, who managed to accrue fame through a range

Vietnam War Research Essay Example for Free

Vietnam War Research Essay The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. The U.S. government viewed involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. The North Vietnamese government and Viet Cong viewed the conflict as a colonial war, fought initially against France, backed by the U.S., and later against South Vietnam, which it regarded as a U. S. puppet state. American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and tripling again in 1962. U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations spanned international borders, with Laos and Cambodia heavily bombed. American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, at the time of the Tet Offensive. After this, U.S. ground forces were gradually withdrawn as part of a policy known as Vietnamization. Despite the Paris Peace Accords, signed by all parties in January 1973, fighting continued. U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973 as a result of the Case–Church Amendment passed by the U.S. Congress. The capture of Saigon by the Vietnam Peoples Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities. Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from fewer than one million to more than three million. Some 200,000–300,000 Cambodians, 20,000–200,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict. (WIKI PEDIA) Key Quotes: (NOTABLE QUOTES) The Vietnam War was arguably the most traumatic experience for the United States in the twentieth century. That is indeed a grim distinction in a span that included two world wars, the assassinations of two presidents and the resignation of another, the Great Depression, the Cold War, racial unrest, and the drug and crime waves. DONALD M. GOLDSTEIN This war in Vietnam is, I believe, a war for civilization. Certainly it is not a war of our seeking. It is a war thrust upon us and we cannot yield to tyranny. FRANCIS CARDINAL SPELLMAN Television brought the brutality of war into the comfort of the living room. Vietnam was lost in the living rooms of America not on the battlefields of Vietnam. MARSHALL MCLUHAN Our resistance will be long and painful, but whatever the sacrifices, however long the struggle, we shall fight to the end, until Vietnam is fully independent and reunified.

Human Capital and Development in Nigeria

Human Capital and Development in Nigeria Development all around the world is related to the economy. The economy is in part a social system of production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of a country. People produce, distribute and consume goods and services and as such they need to be skillful, well experienced and be in good condition physically and mentally (Human Capital) in order for the economy to develop and prosper. Human Capital development especially through Health care and Education are primary factors needed for each and every individual in a society to function well and be able to reach his/her full potentials, increasing overall productivity and thus development. Nigeria, a country with a teeming population of about 140 million constitutes a huge economy in which each and every individual matters in the development process. Every individual contributes one way or the other to the GDP and thus to development. A high level of Education in Nigeria will lead to high levels of income and savings thereby increasing investment and thus productivity. On the other hand, a low level of Education in Nigeria will lead to low levels of income, savings and investments which will eventually translate to reduced productivity. Also, a country with a high level of disease will have a low level of development unlike a country with a low level of disease which will have a far better level of development. This is because an unhealthy person will not be able to work to full capacity which will reduce overall productivity and thus GDP. Nigeria also is a democratic country, where the government is formed by the people and for the people. Without Education to some certain extent, the people that will form the government will make wrong choices and thus the whole government will always be inefficient and ineffective. Nigerias economy is already suffering from misallocation of resources, corruption, embezzlement and unethical leadership over the years. Essential issues that affect the lives of people and the economy are being dealt with by inefficient governments; Issues concerning the tradeoff between efficiency and equity in the production of social services, health care, education, clean drinking water and infrastructure. Also, government offices are filled with the wrong people (structural problems) leading to further inefficiencies which affects the peoples ability to enhance themselves both physically and mentally for a better Nigeria. Section 2 after the Introduction of the paper will cover the Literature Review. Section 3 will be Human Capital and Development Indicators. Section 4 of the paper will cover Nigerias Human Capital and Development. Section 5 will cover Empirical Investigation on the impact of Human Capital on Economic Development in Nigeria. Section 6 will cover recommendations and Conclusions. 2. Literature Review The literature of human capital and development in Nigeria is mainly centred on the emphasis of factors that constitute human capital and affect development e.g. education, health, social services and enabling environment. A definition of human capital in the work of Ogujuiba and Adeniyi (2005) state that; anything contributing to the improvement of human productivity, stimulate resourcefulness and enhance human dignity and overall quality of human life while refining attitudes, is an essential part of the human capital of any nation. These will include four important aspects namely the education system, health services, social services and good governance. Any improvement of these four important aspects will eventually lead to development. Akingbade (2008) asserts that; for any nation to have economic development within and outside its borders, it has to cater for its citizens via human capital development. Under achievement of human capital development in a country leads to underde velopment of such country via failure to meet national objectives and lack of optimization of available potentials and resources. Poor human capital leads to hunger, poverty, disease, brain-drain, optical flight, huge debts, political instability etc thereby hampering the development process. There is a positive relationship between human capital and development. As more and more efforts are made to increase the value of human capital of a society, the more the development level of that society. The more a nation has knowledgeable, skilled and resourceful individuals, the more the national growth and development of that nation. The human capital status of a nation will directly influence and positively correlate with economic and social indicators such as gross domestic product, income per capita, balance of trade, life expectancy, literacy rate, level of industrialization and the quality of infrastructural provisions. It can also have great impact on political stability, national peace and harmony as well as the prevailing ethos. (Ogujuiba and Adeniyi, 2005). One of the factors that constitute human capital and affect development is education. Increase in the level of quality education of Nigerian citizens will increase productivity and hence development. Lucas (1988) includes human capital as an additional input in the production of goods, while retaining the other features of the neoclassical growth model. In the model, the labour force can accumulate human capital, which is then used together with physical capital to generate the output of the economy. In one version of the model, human capital is acquired through time spent in an (non-productive) educational process, introducing a trade-off for workers between employing time to produce output and using it to gain further human capital that will increase their marginal productivity when working in subsequent periods. In another version of the model, human capital is gained by the workers through on-the-job training, and so the time employed working increases their productivity later on . A recent research on the impact of human capital on economic development carried out by Ogujuiba and Adeniyi shows a more robust result using data from the Central Bank of Nigeria annual report 1970 2003. Their findings were that education level indicated via primary to tertiary education enrolment in Nigeria has a positive impact on Nigerias economic development. Even though the relationship between economic development and tertiary education enrolment is positive, it is also found to be weak. This is probably associated to the decay in most of the tertiary institutions, persistent strikes and disruption of academic activities, inadequate funding and weak infrastructure in the educational sector of Nigeria. Becker (1992) provides the most direct link between education and economic growth: lower fertility provides an opportunity to increase human capital, which in turn helps sustain lower fertility. The more educated the parents are, the more likely they go for smaller families because not only do they have a higher opportunity cost of time, but also they can teach their children more effectively. High levels of human capital cause low fertility and high investment in human capital. Other factors that constitute human capital and affect development are health services, social services and good governance. Health services include all the necessary need of a citizen when he/she is ill. Health services can be reflected by several indicators such as life expectancy and infant mortality. Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995, Ch.12), among many others, have also included life expectancy and infant mortality in the growth regressions as a proxy of tangible human capital, complementing the intangible human capital measures derived from school inputs or cognitive tests considered; their finding is that life expectancy has a strong, positive relation with growth. This means that Health services which help an individual to operate at his/her full capacity increases overall productivity and hence growth and development. When there is good governance, there will be social services and also, human capital will be increased thereby leading to development. But Nigeria, a country that relies only on oil revenues lacks good governance. Barton (2003) points out that due to lack of good governance in Nigeria, expenditure outstripped revenue, large internal budget deficits mounted and grandiose external debts appeared. He also added that a general lack of accountability and transparency, two critical factors for maintaining good governance was lacking in Nigeria. These problems also eroded overall credibility and drastically undermined investor confidence. Nigerias international image is rather poor. In a credit-risk rating published in the Economist in1994, Nigeria was ranked third to last, after Iraq and Russia (The Economist, 1994). In view of our topic, the literature has been focused mainly on the relationship that runs from human capital to development. In my own view, the relationship can also run from development to human capital. For example, Nigeria with its abundant natural resources can enjoy economic development via international trade gains. Nigeria in collaboration with multinational corporations can exploit its natural resources and sell to the world market. These gains from the global market can be channelled to various sectors of the economy thus enhancing growth and development. But all this will be possible if and only if there is good governance in Nigeria which will allocate resources efficiently, implement the right policies and lead the various sectors of the economy in the right direction. With these gains to trade, which lead to development, human capital can be revisited to enhance greater development. On the other hand also, high levels of human capital can increase revenues via increasi ng output and attracting foreign direct investments. For example the case of India; where their governments have spent a lot on their people to attain Information Technology know-how which attracts companies in the United States to outsource some of their IT work from India. Nigeria is a country with a high population thus with a high human capital potential. With the necessary governance and commitment, Nigeria can be rich in human capital thereby leading to its development. 3. Human Capital and Development Indicator Human Development Index The Human Development Index (HDI) provides a composite measure of three dimensions of human development: living a long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy), being educated (measured by adult literacy and enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary level) and having a decent standard of living (measured by purchasing power parity, PPP, income). All these factors affect the output level of a country. According to the 2007/2008 human development Report, Iceland is ranked 1st while Sierra Leone is ranked 177th in the 2005 human development Index. The HDI for Nigeria is 0.470, which gives the country a rank of 158th out of 177 countries. This clearly shows that Iceland is more developed than Nigeria because of the difference in human capital. Table 1 below shows Nigerias Human development index for 2005. Table 1: Nigerias human development index 2005 HDI value Life expectancy at birth (years) Adult literacy rate (% ages 15 and older) Combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio (%) GDP per capita (PPP US$) 1. Iceland (0.968) 1. Japan (82.3) 1. Georgia (100.0) 1. Australia (113.0) 1. Luxembourg (60,228) 156. Senegal (0.499) 163. Botswana (48.1) 102. Algeria (69.9) 136. Nepal (58.1) 158. Rwanda (1,206) 157. Eritrea (0.483) 164. CÃ ´te dIvoire (47.4) 103. Tanzania (United Republic of) (69.4) 137. Equatorial Guinea (58.1) 159. Benin (1,141) 158. Nigeria (0.470) 165. Nigeria (46.5) 104. Nigeria (69.1) 138. Nigeria (56.2) 160. Nigeria (1,128) 159. Tanzania (United Republic of) (0.467) 166. Malawi (46.3) 105. Guatemala (69.1) 139. Bangladesh (56.0) 161. Eritrea (1,109) 160. Guinea (0.456) 167. Guinea-Bissau (45.8) 106. Lao Peoples Democratic Republic (68.7) 140. Yemen (55.2) 162. Ethiopia (1,055) 177. Sierra Leone (0.336) 177. Zambia (40.5) 139. Burkina Faso (23.6) 172. Niger (22.7) 174. Malawi (667) Source: UNDP Human Development Index Trends The human development index trends tell an important story of how human development changes over time. Since the mid-1970s almost all regions have been progressively increasing their HDI score (Figure 2). East Asia and South Asia have accelerated progress since 1990. Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), following a catastrophic decline in the first half of the 1990s, has also recovered to the level before the reversal. The major exception is sub-Saharan Africa. Since 1990 it has stagnated, partly because of economic reversal but principally because of the catastrophic effect of HIV/AIDS on life expectancy. Figure 2: Trends Nigerias human development growth is slow compared to other regions in the world and this also translates to slow development. This is possibly due to factors that hinder the three dimensions that the HDI captures (life expectancy, adult literacy and enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary level and purchasing power parity, PPP, income). Factors may include: high level of diseases, poor health services, misallocation of resources, bad governance, poor infrastructure, and poor educational systems. 4. Nigerias Human Capital and Development Nigeria, a country with a teeming population of over 140 million people with an oil dependent economy has had a declining average economic growth over the years. This is in part due to poor human capital. Several sectors of the Nigerian economy have suffered immensely due to poor human capital. Poor human capital has its devastating effect on the development of any economy. Low income, hunger, poverty, disease, brain-drain, optical flight, huge debts and political instability are all the ramifications of poor human capital. Nigerias high population does not indicate high human capital value because only a few people are opportune to have quality education, health services and other human development services. The value of the human capital asset of a nation is a function of quantity, quality as well as the operating environment (Akingbade, 2008). High population only indicates high potential for human capital development. When substantial inputs and efforts are made to elevate these potentials that is when high population translate to high human capital value. Among the inputs are; a good educational system, good health systems and a conducive operating environment. Nigeria lacks both inputs and efforts needed to elevate its high human capital potentials. For instance, Nigeria is far more endowed in mineral resources and human population than Japan, Sweden or Singapore; yet it comes nowhere near these countries in technological advancement and in economic and social development. What makes the differenc e is human capital, its development, effective engagement and utilization. (Akingbade, 2008). In terms of the educational systems of Nigeria, there are a lot of government owned primary and secondary schools. Also, there are a lot of Universities in Nigeria but the problem is the amount of resources invested in these areas is insufficient. Due to the few resources allocated to the educational sector, quality education becomes difficult to attain. As Nigerias population increase in a geometrical ratio, the resources allocated to education is increasing slowly or sometimes decreasing. This misallocation of resources results to a lot of pressure on existing infrastructure leading to depreciation. Huge quantities of people pass out from primary, secondary schools and the Universities with little or no knowledge and no jobs to do. The masses in Nigeria are the ones mostly deprived of quality education and health services. Due to the deprivation of quality education, there are low incomes and wages. These low incomes and wages drive away already existing persons with high human cap ital to foreign countries in search of a better pasture (brain drain). This brain drain leads to insufficient professionals in Nigeria causing overall productivity to fall. The country is left with a lot of people with little or no useful knowledge in terms of increasing overall productivity. It is in the midst of all this that people are meant to elect a leader they dont know about. The masses deprived of quality education dont know their rights, the constitution, and other related matters that affect their social well being now and in the near future. Inefficient and ineffective leaders are put in place to continue misallocating resources thereby worsening the situation. More masses become poor and thus reduce the overall productivity of Nigeria. Another part of the problem is poor or inadequate health facilities, infrastructure and professionals. The existing health facilities and infrastructure cannot cater for the teeming population and hence a lot of people are deprived quality health care. Due to inadequate health facilities, a lot of people die from diseases that are curable thereby reducing Nigerias high human capital development potential. Also, due to low incomes and wages explained earlier, Nigerian doctors, nurses and health officers migrate to developed countries for a better life. These inadequacies in health facilities, infrastructure and professionals undermine the health sector and hence lead to reduced overall productivity of the nation. The Human Poverty Index (HPI-1) measures severe deprivation in health by the proportion of people who are not expected to survive age 40. Education is measured by the adult illiteracy rate. And a decent standard of living is measured by the unweighted average of people without access to an improved water source and the proportion of children under age 5 who are underweight for their age. The Human Poverty Index (HPI-1) value for Nigeria is 37.3 which rank Nigeria 80th among 108 developing countries. Table 2 shows the values for these variables for Nigeria and compares them to other countries. Table 2: Selected indicators of human poverty for Nigeria Human Poverty Index (HPI-1) 2004 Probability of not surviving past age 40 (%) 2004 Adult illiteracy rate (%ages 15 and older) 2004 People without access to an improved water source (%)2004 Children underweight for age (% ages 0-5) 2004 1. Barbados (3.0) 1. Iceland (1.4) 1. Estonia (0.2) 1. Thailand (1) 1. Czech Republic (1) 78. Rwanda (36.5) 158. Uganda (38.5) 127. Algeria (30.1) 114. Mali (50) 108. Philippines (28) 79. Malawi (36.7) 159. CÃ ´te dIvoire (38.6) 128. Tanzania (United Republic of) (30.6) 115. Guinea (50) 109. Indonesia (28) 80. Nigeria (37.3) 160. Nigeria (39.0) 129. Nigeria (30.9) 116. Nigeria (52) 110. Nigeria (29) 81. Burundi (37.6) 161. Guinea-Bissau (40.5) 130. Guatemala (30.9) 117. Fiji (53) 111. Sri Lanka (29) 82. Yemen (38.0) 162. Congo (Democratic Republic of the) (41.1) 131. Lao Peoples Democratic Republic (31.3) 118. Congo (Democratic Republic of the) (54) 112. Maldives (30) 108. Chad (56.9) 173. Zimbabwe (57.4) 164. Burkina Faso (76.4) 125. Ethiopia (78) 134. Bangladesh (48) Source: UNDP Nigeria, a country with abundant natural resources and high population can invest immensely in human capital development in its citizens to enjoy increased productivity. With the immense Oil revenues, Nigeria can channel sufficient resources to providing opportunities for all citizens to develop to their fullest potentials through education, training and motivation as well as creating the enabling environment for everyone to participate fully in national development. These will include expenditures in educational and training institutions, health facilities, adult functional literacy, vocational and skills acquisition programmes, information and communication technologies (ICT) as well as in research and development. With all these investments, foreign direct investment will increase (e.g. Information Technology task outsourcing of American companies from India) and revenues from within and outside the country will also increase. 5. Recommendations and Conclusion Despite all the poor education system, health services, social services and governance system in Nigeria, there are possible recommendations that will help reduce the enormous impact on the economy. Each and every system stated above has its impact on human capital and thus the development of a nation and as such have different recommendations. Starting with the poor education system in Nigeria, one must consider the resources allocated to this sector before making any recommendation. First of all, the teachers available in schools and Universities considering the number of students are really inadequate. Nowadays, everyone wants to be rich, no one wants to help in social development. Our values have changed and we have become more self centered. So our values need to be changed back via value re-orientation suiting our social values. Students need to understand what is at stake in the educational system and be encouraged to be teachers. Quality teachers need to be produced. No education system can rise above the quality of its teachers and no nation can rise above the level of its education system (Akingbade, 2008). When there is an increase in the number of quality teachers, the ratio of teachers to students will be efficient for quality education. The Nigerian populace is increasing at a geometrical ratio while the numbe r of quality schools and University is somewhat stagnant. For this reason, there need to be more schools for the teeming populace so as to have a considerably small ratio of teachers to students in a well built infrastructure conducive for learning. Also, the educational system needs to undergo reforms to be well equipped with the challenges of the highly advanced global economy. The integration of the use of computers in all spheres of the education system needs to be emphasized because the world is continuously advancing in computer technology. Teachers/Lecturers salaries and improved working conditions in educational institutions should be given high priority by the Government. Regular closure of tertiary institutions due to strikes, cult activities, and excesses of student unions, etc. should be addressed by the relevant authorities. The effort of Government on increasing primary school enrolment through the free compulsory Universal Basic Education should be sustained. This cou ld also be complemented by involving private and religious organizations. Â ­Another problem that needs urgent attention is the issue of poor health services. If the whole country is sick, the whole country stops functioning. And as such here are possible recommendations for the Nigerian health sector; First and foremost is strategizing various ways to retain our medical doctors and nurses to reduce brain drain. Due to poor salary given to these workers, they tend to migrate to other countries. The salaries of doctors and nurses need to be reconsidered in terms of the actual state of the economy. Other alternatives to well paid salaries can be more benefits to the workers to serve as an incentive to stay in Nigeria. For example policy can be created to say if you are a doctor in Nigeria, you are entitled to a house and two cars; one for you and one for your wife. Another recommendation for the Nigerian health sector is the provision of adequate facilities and infrastructure to the ever growing populace. The government needs to increase its expenditure in the health sector as the population increases. More hospitals need to be constructed and more medical equipments need to be installed in these new hospitals. Good hospital roads need to be constructed in order to have easy access. The provision of more ambulances is really a crucial issue in case of emergencies. Also, Information and Communication Technology need to be integrated to the Nigerian health sector so as to increase efficiency. Our doctors and nurses need to be updated always via the internet and as such they need to be familiar with computers and the internet for better performance. All these good hospitals with many doctors and nurses need not to be deprived for the masses; it should be accessed by all because everyone matters in the development process. Lastly, the most important issue after getting all the doctors, nurses, equipment and infrastructure is the maintenance aspect. All these hospitals need sufficient maintenance to survive for a long time and as such a qu alitative maintenance company trusted by the government should be given the sole task. If one maintenance company lacks the capacity to maintain a lot of hospitals, other qualitative maintenance companies can also be in place. With two or more maintenance companies, there will be competition between them and price of maintenance will fall. Good governance in Nigeria can be indicated via various factors and one of the factors is social service. When there is good governance, there will be qualitative and quantitative social services for the people thereby enhancing human capital. But on the other hand, when there is bad governance, there will be white elephant projects leading to few social services. Good governance in Nigeria should be encouraged via fighting corruption and setting up effective and efficient check and balance system. Every individual that is given responsibility in office should be held accountable for his/her actions. Also, government expenditure relative to its revenue should be monitored to enhance good governance. Another recommendation for good governance is making all government decisions transparent to the people. Keeping people in the loop of government decisions reduce the probability of strikes and civil unrest. Strategizing good governance for Nigeria will greatly improve Nigerias image to t he international community thereby encouraging potential investors to invest in the Nigerian economy. As investors invest and the government provides more social services for the people, human capital is immensely increased leading to economic development. In a nutshell, all recommendations should be posed at all possible factors that constitute human capital and affect development; educational systems, health services, social services and governance. It is these factors that turn high human capital potential into human capital value and it is these factors that help a nation develop both socially and economically. CONCLUSION We have seen despite the fact that Nigeria has been immensely blessed with natural resources and high human capital development potentials, it still fails to become one of the leading economic and technological giants in the world. Nigeria in the Human Poverty Index ranks 80th among 108 developing countries; meaning a lot of the masses in Nigeria are poor, deprived of health care and quality education and thus translate into low or no development. Also, Nigeria in the Human Development Index ranks 158th out of 177 countries showing that there is low life expectancy, adult literacy, purchasing power parity and enrollment at primary, secondary and tertiary level. Several results of various research points out the fact that all the factors mentioned above affect the value of human capital of a country and its development. And as such, all these factors need to be given the outmost importance in policy making. With the globalised economy becoming more competitive and advanced in terms of technology, Nigeria, a country with all that it needs to be on top should make the best use of what it has in order to have the best there is in this global economy.

Lower Lip Shave for Squamous Cell Carcinoma Reconstruction

Lower Lip Shave for Squamous Cell Carcinoma Reconstruction Lower lip shave for reconstruction of lower lip squamous cell carcinoma Introduction Global estimates of the incidence of oral squamous cell carcinoma vary slightly between various sources, but it appears to be around the eighth commonest site for malignant tumours, with approximately 300,000 cases per year (Shaw, Pace-Balzan, Butterworth, 2011, Parkin et al. 2005) (Shaw et al. 2011) (Scully Bagan, 2009) (Saman Warnakulasuriya, 2009). The relative incidence of lower lip cancer is 35%, which is the highest among oral cancers sites and is most likely due to chronic exposure to sunlight (Bauer et al. 2014).Although the modifiable risk factors such as tobacco, alcohol, diet and lifestyle (S. Warnakulasuriya, 2009) have been identified in the past, only a modest decline in incidence has been reported in recent decades (Chaturvedi et al. 2008). Moreover, an increase of oropharyngeal cancer cases has been related to HPV infections, highlighting the role played by HPV 16 as well as sexual behaviour in head and neck cancer (Chaturvedi et al. 2008; Marur et al. 2010). Despit e the decline in the prevalence of smoking in industrial countries, there is no noticeable reduction in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) incidence (Shaw et al. 2011). Cancer is a disease that is perhaps more dreaded by more people than any other ailment. The prognosis, in the early stages, therefore, is favourable. The most satisfactory results are obtained when the disease is detected early and treated promptly. A sound and suggestive approach to the problem of cancer control. Patient and methods A 55-year-old patient was referred by a General Medical Practitioner (GMP) regarding a one year history of recurrent lower lip swelling and infection. The patient reported having a lump on her lower lip for approximately one year. At first it was smaller in size and eventually almost occupied the whole lower lip within the one year. The patient complained of intermittent pain and dryness with occasional suppurative discharge from the lower lip. She had had frequent courses of antibiotics and at the time of initial consultation was on a course of fluconazole. The patient had a history of biopsy previously with the diagnosis of oral lichen planus in this region. Although, there had been an improvement of the symptoms after previous treatment at that time, a significant deterioration of symptoms had recurred with advanced swelling and crusting of the lower lip. According to the GMP and the patient, the lesion was worsening and had become resistant to topical medical treatment. There was no weight loss, abdominal or other systemic features observed. The patient’s appetite, sleep and mood were good. The patient had also been diagnosed with mild asthma 5 years prior. The patient consumed minimal amounts of alcohol, did not use any tobacco products and most of her time was spent indoors. Clinical examination Extra-oral examination; there was no detectable lymphadenopathy. 20mm haemorrhagic and crusting lump present on the lower lip and tender on touch, nodular in nature. Intra-oral examination; the oral mucosa was well lubricated and mild reticular white lines were present bilaterally on the buccal mucosa with no oral mucosa speckling or ulceration evident. The patient wore upper and lower complete acrylic dentures. An incisional biopsy was performed on initial consultation. The incisional biopsy report of the sample taken showed moderate dysplasia but given the clinical examination and the nature of the long history of symptoms, it might have been that the biopsy represented only a particular part and very likely that there had been invasive components to the other parts of the lip. The patient was referred urgently to the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department for further treatment even though the lip was healing well after the incisional biopsy. Method of Treatment The Oral and Maxillofacial Consultant decided to perform a lip shave of the vermilion (Kolhe Leonard, 1988) and a tumour biopsy. This method of treatment is advisable in potentially malignant and early malignancy of small lesions and where there is no metastasis present. Involvement of the lymph nodes was not observed, thus the operative removal of the lymph node was not indicated. The vermilionectomy, also and better known colloquially as the lip shave, lip peal, or lip scalp operation, refers to the elliptical, horizontal excision of the exposed mucous membrane or vermilion of the lip, generally of the lower one, with resurfacing or retreading of the surgically created defect by the advancement of the undermined labial mucosa, thereby providing fresh covering which will tolerate many more years of wear (Kurth, n.d.). This procedure is a relatively simple, well-standardised, non-deforming plastic procedure of short duration. After general anesthesia has been performed, surgical preparation of the field with colourless antiseptic solution is applied, and after appropriate draping, the exposed area of lip vermilion to be excised is first outlined with a methylene blue guide mark, after which the underlying tissues are locally infiltrated with Lignospan 2% (1:80000) solution. The outlined mark is incised throughout its entire extent while the lip is firmly immobilized with the thumb and index finger of the free hand, with care being taken to make vertical rather than oblique shelving incisions so that subsequent closure will be facilitated and hypertrophic scarring prevented. After the mucosa is first elevated by sharp dissection from one corner, it can then most conveniently be removed by curved, pointed scissors down to the muscular layer. In cases of superficial malignancy, even a deeper resection can be performed without impairing the watertight closure of the lips or jeopardizing the cosmetic result. A fter haemostasis has been secured with 3-0 Prolene, the labial mucosa is undermined for an appropriate distance down to the deep muscular plane, the surgically created defect being closed by the advancement and approximation of this mobilized flap, which is then united to the cutaneous edge. To achieve an even and symmetrical closure three key sutures are first inserted, the first in the mid-portion of the lip and the remaining two bisecting the distance between the first suture and the commissures. The continuous sutures of 6-0 Prolene can then be inserted consecutively from the wound edge. The knots should not overlay the suture line so as not to retard healing. The donor site was sutured with continuous Vicryl 3.0 suture. The excised mucosal lesion was ellipsoid in shape with the parameters of 14mm horizontally x 20mm from superior to inferior x 8mm in depth. The mucosal excision was marked with the suture material (long stitch right-sided. Short stitch lingual) and sent for histopathological examination. The patient was given broad spectrum antimicrobial (Amoxicillin 500mg) injections for at least 3 days postoperatively and advised to use the lips as little as possible. The wound was kept moist during the day with frequently changed dressings of sterile normal saline which contributed considerably to the patients comfort. At night a thick layer of Aureomycin was advised, to be applied to the suture line to prevent crusting and infection. After three days the alternate sutures could be removed, and the remaining ones on the next day following the healing having progressed satisfactorily. The patient was instructed to keep the resurfaced lip well lubricated with Vaseline, lanolin, or similar preparations for quite some time postoperatively, and was also advised to avoid undue exposure to the sun. Conclusion Although, the patient had been primarily treated for symptomatic oral lichen planus, the condition had worsened significantly within a year. A second incisional biopsy showed moderate dysplasia. Furthermore, the history of rapid symptom progression of the lesion justified the performance of a prompt excisional biopsy under general anesthesia. The most recent hisopathological report confirmed the moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma diagnosis, whereas moderate dysplasia was representative of only part of the lesion. Tumour thickness was about 4mm (exophytic and endophytic components) with focally non-cohesive invasion pattern. The lesion was successfully removed within excision margins from 2mm to over 5mm. Nevertheless, close follow up will be continued and the necessity of radiotherapy has been considered at a multidisciplinary meeting as margin dysplasia was found of varying grades at all margins. The lip shave is thus a non-deforming plastic operation of great value in the prophylaxis and treatment of lip cancer and in the cosmetic correction of certain congenital, neoplastic, and traumatic lip deformities. (Kurth, LIP SHAVE OR VERMILIONECTOMY : INDICATIONS AND TECHNIQUE). This is obviously not a technique suitable for all lip defects, but in selected cases it gives a very satisfactory result. Discussion Tumours are divided into two main classes; one being benign and the other, malignant. A tumour may show any degree of malignancy, which in turn has an important bearing on the prognosis and on the prospect of successful treatment. The carcinoma is a malignant epithelial tumour. It is the commonest of all malignant tumours. Among the most important carcinomas is the squamous cell carcinoma. It grows particularly on the skin, lip, tongue, larynx, cervix, and urinary bladder. Ulcers about the mouth or lips that does not heal in ten days to two weeks is a significant sign of oral cancer. If detected early and properly diagnosed, cancer is often cured or at least controlled. Incidences of oral cancer have been rising in many countries around the world (Saman Warnakulasuriya et al. 2008). The 5-year survival rate for oral cancer has not significantly improved in the past 30 years and remains at approximately 50% (Jemal et al. 2004). Many oral squamous cell carcinomas are preceded by clinically evident oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMDs) (Saman Warnakulasuriya, Mak, Mà ¶ller, 2007). It is very important to prevent malignant change in people diagnosed with OPMDs, but the hazard ratios of various OPMDs are not well known. OPMDs include hyperkeratosis or epithelial hyperplasia, epithelial dysplasia (Schepman et al. 1998, â€Å"Oral Leukoplakia and Malignant Transformation†, 1984) erythroplakia (Reichart Philipsen, 2005) and oral submucous fibrosis (Murti et al. 1985, Pindborg et al. 1984) and their clinical phenotypes are well documented. Hyperkeratosis or epithelial hyperplasia, epithelial dysplasia and OSF are the most common oral mucosal disorders in the regions where areca quid chewing is prevalent, such as India, Taiwan, and other Southeast Asian countries (Pindborg et al. 1984, Reichart Philipsen, 2005, Lee et al. 2003, Silverman et al. 1976, Kaas et al. 1994, Chung et al. 2005). The malignant potential of oral lichen planus (OLP) remains controversial because of the absence of universally accepted diagnosis criteria (Chung et al. 2005). The malignant transformation rates of OPMDs show a great variation; for example, 10–20% of hyperkeratosis or epithelial hyperplasia, epithelial dysplasia may transform to cancer and the estimated annual rate is 1.4%–7% (Schepman et al. 1998, â€Å"Oral Leukoplakia and Malignant Transformation,† 1984). In oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) there have been many efforts to identify the factors that will allow staging in a way that accurately predicts prognosis. Many different factors have been investigated as possible predictors of outcome including patient age (Thoma et al. 2014), performance status (Rades et al. 2011) laboratory (Wittekindt P. et al. 2013) histologic grade (Arduino et al. 2008, Weijers Snow et al. 2009, Caslin R. et al. 1992, Piffkà ² et al. 1997, Brandwein-Gensler et al. 2005, Lindenblatt et al. 2012, Kurokawa et al. 2005), and various biomarkers (Ziober et al. 2008, Grimm, 2012). Current staging criteria from the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) for head and neck cancer rely only on tumour size, node status, and the presence of distant metastasis (TNM). Extracapsular nodal spread, positive margins, and lymphovascular invasion are used as indications for adjuvant radiation or chemotherapy but are not part of the staging criteria. Histologic grade is not included in the current staging criteria because its ability to predict a prognosis has historically been controversial (Roland et al. 1992). Although SCC staging protocol in the seventh edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual seems to represent an improvement from previous editions, there are still significant shortcomings, the greatest of which is a lack of practicality. Several studies have questioned the prognostic accuracy of the TNM system for oral cancer since neither patients comorbidity, specific tumour related factors nor multimodal treatment regimens such as preoperative radiochemotherapy (RCT) are incorporated (Kreppel et al. 2013). Nevertheless, a strong association between conventional cytology grade and survival in patients has been stated by several investigators (Weigum et al. 2010, Editor Kurtycz, 2011, Thomas et al. 2014). A high histologic grade in early stage oral cavity cancer is associated with poorer survival and carries independent prognostic value, in addition to tumour size, node status, and the presence of a distant metastasis (TNM) stage. Thus, histologic grade is considered clinically when making treatment decisions, and multivariable models of survival should include grade as a covariate to improve prognostic accuracy (Thomas et al. 2014). Lip tumours are usually low grade, whereas tumours from teeth to back of tongue are increasing in malignancy as we pass back (Grade 2); tumours of pharynx-high-grade malignancy (grade 3). Grading is a useful method of communication between pathologist and surgeon and is also used as a guide to treatment. Briefly, grades 1 and 2 are usually treated surgicall y, whereas grades 3 and 4 require radiation. Furthermore, the influence of immunological parameters on the prognosis of OSCC has already been discussed in the 1970thand 1980th[References 8,9]. Despite the fact that oral cancer and its causes are well known to the medical and dental professions, and that the tissues of the mouth are accessible for early detection of any abnormal condition, intraoral cancer continues to present an important problem. Selection of early cancer diagnosis is often difficult, especially in some cases where early symptoms are not present or misleading such as in the present case. The gross appearance first presents a local induration, then a warty mass followed by deep infiltration. The malignant ulcer is slow-growing, hard, indurated, and invasive with round edges. It may or may not involve the lymphatic nodes. Furthermore, the risk factors associated with these OPMDs and oral cancers have been established. Tobacco use, alcohol abuse and areca quid chewing habits are important risk factors. The associated factors in the progression of the disease and malignant transformation of OPMDs have not been well defined in previous studies: lesion type (Schepman et al. 1998, â€Å"Oral Leukoplakia and Malignant Transformation,† 1984, Murti et al. 1985, Pindborg et al. 1984, Lumerman A. et al. 1995, Hsue et al. 2007), age (Hsue et al. 2007), lifestyle habits (Schepman et al. 1998, Hsue et al. 2007, Chen S. et al. 2000) and lesion subsites (Scully et al. 2003) were significant factors related to malignancy, but the results from different studies vary and firm conclusions cannot be drawn. Excision of the exposed mucosa or vermilion of the lips can be safely performed even under local anaesthesia and is particularly indicated in situations requiring resurfacing of the lip, notably extensive precancerous leukoplakia or chronic solar cheilitis à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ the chronic sunburn of the weather-beaten farmers or sailors skin or tropical skin of the inhabitants of sunny climates. 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